Transaction Process System part II

Transaction Process System part II
Definition: A Transaction Processing System (TPS) is a type of information system that collects, stores, modifies and retrieves the data transactions of an enterprise.A transaction is any event that passes the ACID test in which data is generated or modified before storage in an information system Features of Transaction Processing Systems The success of commercial enterprises depends on the reliable processing of transactions to ensure that customer orders are met on time, and that partners and suppliers are paid and can make payment.The field of transaction processing, therefore, has become a vital part of effective business management, led by such organisations as the Association for Work Process Improvement and the Transaction Processing Performance Council.Transaction processing systems offer enterprises the means to rapidly process transactions to ensure the smooth flow of data and the progression of processes throughout the enterprise. Typically, a TPS will exhibit the following characteristics:Rapid ProcessingThe rapid processing of transactions is vital to the success of any enterprise – now more than ever, in the face of advancing technology and customer demand for immediate action.TPS systems are designed to process transactions virtually instantly to ensure that customer data is available to the processes that require it.Reliability Similarly, customers will not tolerate mistakes. TPS systems must be designed to ensure that not only do transactions never slip past the net, but that the systems themselves remain operational permanently.TPS systems are therefore designed to incorporate comprehensive safeguards and disaster recovery systems. These measures keep the failure rate well within tolerance levels.Standardisation Transactions must be processed in the same way each time to maximise efficiency. To ensure this, TPS interfaces are designed to acquire identical data for each transaction, regardless of the customer.Controlled Access Since TPS systems can be such a powerful business tool, access must be restricted to only those employees who require their use. Restricted access to the system ensures that employees who lack the skills and ability to control it cannot influence the transaction process.Transactions Processing Qualifiers In order to qualify as a TPS, transactions made by the system must pass the ACID test. The ACID tests refers to the following four prerequisitesAtomicity means that a transaction is either completed in full or not at all. For example, if funds are transferred from one account to another, this only counts as a bone fide transaction if both the withdrawal and deposit take place. If one account is debited and the other is not credited, it does not qualify as a transaction. TPS systems ensure that transactions take place in their entirety.ConsistencyTPS systems exist within a set of operating rules (or integrity constraints). If an integrity constraint states that all transactions in a database must have a positive value, any transaction with a negative value would be refused.IsolationTransactions must appear to take place in isolation. For example, when a fund transfer is made between two accounts the debiting of one and the crediting of another must appear to take place simultaneously. The funds cannot be credited to an account before they are debited from another.Durability Once transactions are completed they cannot be undone.To ensure that this is the case even if the TPS suffers failure, a log will be created to document all completed transactions. These four conditions ensure that TPS systems carry out their transactions in a methodical, standardised and reliable manner.Types of TransactionsWhile the transaction process must be standardised to maximise efficiency, every enterprise requires a tailored transaction process that aligns with its business strategies and processes.For this reason, there are two broad types of transactionBatch ProcessingBatch processing is a resource-saving transaction type that stores data for processing at pre-defined times. Batch processing is useful for enterprises that need to process large amounts of data using limited resources. Examples of batch processing include credit card transactions, for which the transactions are processed monthly rather than in real time.Credit card transactions need only be processed once a month in order to produce a statement for the customer, so batch processing saves IT resources from having to process each transaction individually. Real Time Processing In many circumstances the primary factor is speed.For example, when a bank customer withdraws a sum of money from his or her account it is vital that the transaction be processed and the account balance updated as soon as possible, allowing both the bank and customer to keep track of funds.Sources : Further information regarding transaction processing systems can be found at the University of Illinois and John Hopkins University and http://www.bestpricecomputers.co.uk/glossary/transaction-processing-systems.html

Transaction Process System

Transaction Process System
A Transaction Processing System (TPS) is a type of information system.TPSs collect, store, modify, and retrieve the transactions of an organization. A transaction is an event that generates or modifies data that is eventually stored in an information system. To be considered a transaction processing system the computer must pass the ACID test.From a technical perspective, a Transaction Processing System (or Transaction Processing Monitor) monitors transaction programs, a special kind of programs. The essence of a transaction program is that it manages data that must be left in a consistent state. E.g. if an electronic payment is made, the amount must be either both withdrawn from one account and added to the other, or none at all. In case of a failure preventing transaction completion, the partially executed transaction must be 'rolled back' by the TPS. While this type of integrity must be provided also for batch transaction processing,it is particularly important for online processing: if e.g. an airline seat reservation system is accessed by multiple operators, after an empty seat inquiry, the seat reservation data must be locked until the reservation is made, otherwise another user may get the impression a seat is still free while it is actually being booked at the time.Without proper transaction monitoring, double bookings may occur. Other transaction monitor functions include deadlock detection and resolution (deadlocks may be inevitable in certain cases of cross-dependence on data), and transaction logging (in 'journals') for 'forward recovery' in case of massive failures.Transaction Processing is not limited to application programs. The 'journaled file system' provided with IBMs AIX Unix operating system employs similar techniques to maintain file system integrity, including a journal.Types of Transaction Processing SystemsContrasted with batch processingBatch processing is not transaction processing. Batch processing involves processing several transactions at the same time, and the results of each transaction are not immediately available when the transaction is being enteredFeatures of Transaction Processing SystemsRapid ResponseFast performance with a rapid response time is critical. Businesses cannot afford to have customers waiting for a TPS to respond, the turnaround time from the input of the transaction to the production for the output must be a few seconds or less.ReliabilityMany organizations rely heavily on their TPS; a breakdown will disrupt operations or even stop the business. For a TPS to be effective its failure rate must be very low. If a TPS does fail, then quick and accurate recovery must be possible. This makes well–designed backup and recovery procedures essential.InflexibilityA TPS wants every transaction to be processed in the same way regardless of the user, the customer or the time for day. If a TPS were flexible, there would be too many opportunities for non-standard operations, for example, a commercial airline needs to consistently accept airline reservations from a range of travel agents, accepting different transactions data from different travel agents would be a problem.Controlled processingThe processing in a TPS must support an organization's operations. For example if an organization allocates roles and responsibilities to particular employees, then the TPS should enforce and maintain this requirement.ACID First Test DefinitionAtomicityA transaction’s changes to the state are atomic: either all happen or none happen. These changes include database changes, messages, and actions on transducers.ConsistencyA transaction is a correct transformation of the state. The actions taken as a group do not violate any of the integrity constraints associated with the state. This requires that the transaction be a correct program!IsolationEven though transactions execute concurrently, it appears to each transaction T, that others executed either before T or after T, but not both.DurabilityOnce a transaction completes successfully (commits), its changes to the state survive failuresStoring and RetrievingStoring and retrieving information from a TPS must be efficient and effective. The data are stored in warehouses or other databases, the system must be well designed for its backup and recovery procedures.Databases and filesThe storage and retrieval of data must be accurate as it is used many times throughout the day. A database is a collection of data neatly organized, which stores the accounting and operational records in the database. Databases are always protective of their delicate data, so they usually have a restricted view of certain data. Databases are designed using hierarchical, network or relational structures; each structure is effective in its own sense.Hierarchical structure: organizes data in a series of levels, hence why it is called hierarchal. Its top to bottom like structure consists of nodes and branches; each child node has branches and is only linked to one higher level parent node.Network structure: Similar to hierarchical, network structures also organizes data using nodes and branches. But, unlike hierarchical, each child node can be linked to multiple, higher parent nodes.Relational structure: Unlike network and hierarchical, a relational database organizes its data in a series of related tables. This gives flexibility as relationships between the tables are built.The following features are included in real time transaction processing systems:Good Data Placement: The database should be designed to access patterns of data from many simultaneous users.Short transactions: Short transactions enables quick processing. This avoids concurrency and paces the systems.Real-time backup: Backup should be scheduled between low times of activity to prevent lag of the server.High normalization: This lowers redundant information to increase the speed and improve concurrency, this also improves backups.Archiving of historical data: Uncommonly used data are moved into other databases or backed up tables. This keeps tables small and also improves backup times.Good hardware configuration: Hardware must be able to handle many users and provide quick response times.In a TPS, there are5 different types of files, the TPS uses the files to store and organize its transaction data:Master file: Contains information about an organization’s business situation. Most transactions and databases are stored in the master file.Transaction file: It is the collection of transaction records. It helps to update the master file and also serves as audit trails and transaction history.Report file: Contains data that has been formatted for presentation to a user.Work file: temporary files in the system used during the processing.Program file: Contains the instructions for the processing of data.Data WarehouseA data warehouse is a database that collects information from different sources. When it's gathered in real-time transactions it can be used for analysis efficiently if it's stored in a data warehouse. It provides data that are consolidated, subject-orientated, historical and read-onlyConsolidated: Data are organised with consistent naming conventions, measurements, attributes and semantics.It allows data from a data warehouse from across the organization to be effectively used in a consistent manner.Subject-orientated: Large amounts of data are stored across an organization, some data could be irrelevant for reports and makes querying the data difficult. It organizes only key business information from operational sources so that it's available for analysis.Historical: Real-time TPS represent the current value at any time, an example could be stock levels. If past data are kept, querying the database could return a different response. It stores series of snapshots for an organisation's operational data generated over a period of time.Read-only: Once data are moved into a data warehouse, it becomes read-only, unless it was incorrect. Since it represents a snapshot of a certain time, it must never be updated. Only operations which occur in a data warehouse are loading and querying data.Backup ProceduresA Dataflow Diagram of backup and recovery procedures.Since business organizations have become very dependent on TPSs, a breakdown in their TPS may stop the business' regular routines and thus stopping its operation for a certain amount of time. In order to prevent data loss and minimize disruptions when a TPS breaks down a well-designed backup and recovery procedure is put into use. The recovery process can rebuild the system when it goes down.Recovery ProcessA TPS may fail for many reasons. These reasons could include a system failure, human errors, hardware failure, incorrect or invalid data, computer viruses, software application errors or natural disasters. So it is logical to assume that it's not possible to keep a TPS from never failing, however because it may fail time to time, it must be able to cope with failures. The TPS must be able to detect and correct errors when they occur. A TPS will go through a recovery of the database to cope when the system fails, it involves the backup, journal, checkpoint and recovery managerJournal: A journal maintains an audit trail of transactions and database changes. Transaction logs and Database change logs are used, a transaction log records all the essential data for each transactions, including data values, time of transaction and terminal number. A database change log contains before and after copies of records that have been modified by transactions.Checkpoint: A checkpoint record contains necessary information to restart the system. These should be taken frequently, such as several times an hour. It is possible to resume processing from the most recent checkpoint when a failure occurs with only a few minutes of processing work that needs to be repeated.Recovery Manager: A recovery manager is a program which restores the database to a correct condition which can restart the transaction processing.Depending on how the system failed, there can be two different recovery procedures used. Generally, the procedures involves restoring data that has been collected from a backup device and then running the transaction processing again. Two types of recovery are backward recovery and forward recoveryBackward recovery: used to undo unwanted changes to the database. It reverses the changes made by transactions which have been aborted. It involves the logic of reprocessing each transaction - which is very time consuming.Forward recovery: it starts with a backup copy of the database. The transaction will then reprocess according to the transaction journal that occurred between the time the backup was made and the present time. It's much faster and more accurate.See also: Checkpoint restartTypes of Back-up ProceduresThere are two main types of Back-up Procedures: Grandfather-father-son and Partial backups:Grandfather-Father-SonThis procedure refers to at least three generations of backup master files. Hence, the most recent backup is the son, the oldest backup is the grandfather. It's commonly used for a batch transaction processing system with a magnetic tape.If the system fails during a batch run, the master file is recreated by using the son backup and then restarting the batch. However if the son backup fails, is corrupted or destroyed, then the next generation up backup (father) is required. Likewise, if that fails, then the next generation up backup (grandfather) is required. Of course the older the generation, the more the data may be out of date. Organizations can have up to twenty generations of backup.^^Partial BackupsThis only occurs when parts of the master file are backed up. The master file is usually backed up to magnetic tape at regular times, this could be daily, weekly or monthly. Completed transactions since the last backup are stored separately and are called journals, or journal files. The master file can be recreated from the journal files on the backup tape if the system is to fail.Updating in a BatchThis is used when transactions are recorded on paper (such as bills and invoices) or when it's being stored on a magnetic tape. Transactions will be collected and updated as a batch at when it's convenient or economical to process them. Historically, this was more widely used as the information technology did not exist to allow real-time processing.The two stages in batch processing are:Collecting and storage of the transaction data into a transaction file - this involves sorting the data into sequential order.Processing the data by updating the master file - which can be difficult, this may involve data additions, updates and deletions that may require to happen in a certain order. If an error occurs, then the entire batch fails.Updating in batch requires sequential access - since it uses a magnetic tape this is the only way to access data. A batch will start at the beginning of the tape, then reading it from the order it was stored; it's very time-consuming to locate specific transactions.The information technology used includes a secondary storage medium which can store large quantities of data inexpensively (thus the common choice of a magnetic tape). The software used to collect data does not have to be online - it doesn't even need a user interface.Updating in Real-TimeThis is the immediate processing of data. It provides instant confirmation of a transaction. This involves a large amount of users who are simultaneously performing transactions to change data. Because of advances in technology (such as the increase in the speed of data transmission and larger bandwidth), real-time updating is now possible.Steps in a real-time update involve the sending of a transaction data to an online database in a master file. The person providing information is usually able to help with error correction and receives confirmation of the transaction completion.Updating in real-time uses direct access of data. This occurs when data are accessed without accessing previous data items. The storage device stores data in a particular location based on a mathematical procedure. This will then be calculated to find an approximate location of the data. If data are not found at this location, it will search through successive locations until it's found.The information technology used could be a secondary storage medium that can store large amounts of data and provide quick access (thus the common choice of a magnetic disk). It requires a user-friendly interface as it's important for rapid response timeSource : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction_Processing_System

Proses Transaksi

Proses Transaksi
Pembukuan berpasangan adalah praktik standar untuk pencatatan transaksi keuangan. Proses pembukuan hanya meliputi pencatatan transaksi-transaksi ke dalam berbagai jurnal dan pemberian klasifikasi kode perkiraan buku besar (yaitu pengumpulan data keuangan mentah). Hal ini akan menjadi dasar untuk sistem akuntansi yang mengumpulkan dan mengorganisir data mentah menjadi informasi yang berguna.Sistem ini didasarkan pada konsep bahwa suatu bisnis dapat dijabarkan dengan menggunakan beberapa variabel atau rekening, yang masing-masing menjelaskan satu aspek dari bisnis tersebut dari sudut moneter.Setiap transaksi memiliki 'efek ganda' yang akan dijelaskan selanjutnya.Sejarah sistem pembukuan ini telah ditemukan sejak abad ke-12, dan pada akhir abad ke-15, sistem ini telah dipergunakan secara meluas oleh pedagang dari Venesia. Kodifikasi sistem dilakukan pertama kali oleh Luca Pacioli, seorang karib dari Leonardo da Vinci, pada sebuah buku teks matematika terbitan tahun 1494Proses pembukuanKetika transaksi terjadi, sebuah dokumen dihasilkan. Dokumen ini dirujuk sebagai sumber dokumen. Beberpa sumber dokumen sebagai berikut:Kuitansi yang anda dapatkan ketika membeli sesuatu di toko.Laporan saldo bank bulanan anda. Semua sumber dokumen ini kemudian dicatat dalam sebuah Journal. Ini juga disebut sebagai sebuah book of first entry. "Journal" mencatat kedua pihak transaksi yang di catat oleh sumber dokumen. These write-ups are known as Journal entries.These Journal entires are then transferred to a Ledger. A ledger is also known as a book of accounts. The purpose of a Ledger is to bring all of the amounts recorded for that account from the Journal together. This process of transferring the values is known as posting.Once the entries have all been posted, the Ledger accounts are added up in a process called Balancing. A particular working document called an unadjusted trial balance is created. This lists all the balances from all the accounts in the Ledger. Notice that the values are not posted to the trial balance, they are merely copied.At this point accounting happens. The accountants produces a number of adjustments which make sure that the values comply with accounting principles. These values are then passed through the accounting system resulting in an adjusted trial balance. This process continues until the accountant is satisfied.Finaly Financial statements are drawn from the trial balance, which may include:the Income statementthe Balance sheetthe Cash flow statement Sumber : http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembukuan_berpasangan

Enterprise Resource Planning

Enterprise resource planning
Enterprise resource planning (ERP)systems attempt to integrate several data sources and processes of an organization into a unified system. A typical ERP system will use multiple components of computer software and hardware to achieve the integration. A key ingredient of most ERP systems is the use of a unified database to store data for the various system modules.The two key components of an ERP system are a common database and a modular software design. A common database is the system that allows every department of a company to store and retrieve information in real-time. Using a common database allows information to be more reliable, accessible, and easily shared. Furthermore, a modular software design is a variety of programs that can be added on an individual basis to improve the efficiency of the business. This improves the business by adding functionality, mixing and matching programs from different vendors, and allowing the company to choose which modules to implement. These modular software designs link into the common database, so that all of the information between the departments is accessible in real time.Origin of the termMRP vs. ERP — Manufacturing management systems have evolved in stages over the past 30 years from a simple means of calculating materials requirements to the automation of an entire enterprise. Around 1980, over-frequent changes in sales forecasts, entailing continual readjustments in production, as well as the unsuitability of the parameters fixed by the system, led MRP (Material Requirement Planning) to evolve into a new concept : Manufacturing Resource Planning (or MRP2) and finally the generic concept Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)The initials ERP originated as an extension of MRP (material requirements planning then manufacturing resource planning) and CIM (computer-integrated manufacturing) and was introduced by research and analysis firm Gartner. ERP systems now attempt to cover all basic functions of an enterprise, regardless of the organization's business or charter. Non-manufacturing businesses, non-profit organizations and governments now all utilize ERP systems.To be considered an ERP system, a software package must provide the function of at least two systems. For example, a software package that provides both payroll and accounting functions could technically be considered an ERP software package.However, the term is typically reserved for larger, more broadly based applications. The introduction of an ERP system to replace two or more independent applications eliminates the need for external interfaces previously required between systems, and provides additional benefits that range from standardization and lower maintenance (one system instead of two or more) to easier and/or greater reporting capabilities (as all data is typically kept in one database).Examples of modules in an ERP which formerly would have been stand-alone applications include: Manufacturing, Supply Chain, Financials, Customer Relationship Management (CRM), Human Resources, Warehouse Management and Decision Support System.OverviewSome organizations — typically those with sufficient in-house IT skills to integrate multiple software products — choose to implement only portions of an ERP system and develop an external interface to other ERP or stand-alone systems for their other application needs. For example, one may choose to use human resource management system from one vendor, and the financial systems from another, and perform the integration between the systems themselves.This is very common in the retail sector[citation needed], where even a mid-sized retailer will have a discrete Point-of-Sale (POS) product and financials application, then a series of specialized applications to handle business requirements such as warehouse management, staff rostering, merchandising and logistics.Ideally, ERP delivers a single database that contains all data for the software modules, which would include:Manufacturing Engineering, Bills of Material, Scheduling, Capacity, Workflow Management, Quality Control, Cost Management, Manufacturing Process, Manufacturing Projects, Manufacturing FlowSupply Chain Management Inventory, Order Entry, Purchasing, Product Configurator, Supply Chain Planning, Supplier Scheduling, Inspection of goods, Claim Processing, Commission CalculationFinancials General Ledger, Cash Management, Accounts Payable, Accounts Receivable, Fixed AssetsProjects Costing, Billing, Time and Expense, Activity ManagementHuman Resources Human Resources, Payroll, Training, Time & Attendance, Rostering, BenefitsCustomer Relationship Management Sales and Marketing, Commissions, Service, Customer Contact and Call Center supportData Warehouse and various Self-Service interfaces for Customers, Suppliers, and EmployeesEnterprise Resource Planning is a term originally derived from manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) that followed material requirements planning (MRP).MRP evolved into ERP when "routings" became a major part of the software architecture and a company's capacity planning activity also became a part of the standard software activity.[citation needed] ERP systems typically handle the manufacturing, logistics, distribution, inventory, shipping, invoicing, and accounting for a company. Enterprise Resource Planning or ERP software can aid in the control of many business activities, like sales, marketing, delivery, billing, production, inventory management, quality management, and human resource management.ERP systems saw a large boost in sales in the 1990s as companies faced the Y2K problem in their legacy systems. Many companies took this opportunity to replace their legacy information systems with ERP systems. This rapid growth in sales was followed by a slump in 1999, at which time most companies had already implemented their Y2K solutionERPs are often incorrectly called back office systems indicating that customers and the general public are not directly involved. This is contrasted with front office systems like customer relationship management (CRM) systems that deal directly with the customers, or the eBusiness systems such as eCommerce, eGovernment, eTelecom, and eFinance, or supplier relationship management (SRM) systems.ERPs are cross-functional and enterprise wide. All functional departments that are involved in operations or production are integrated in one system. In addition to manufacturing, warehousing, logistics, and information technology, this would include accounting, human resources, marketing, and strategic management.ERP II means open ERP architecture of components. The older, monolithic ERP systems became component oriented.[citation needed]EAS — Enterprise Application Suite is a new name for formerly developed ERP systems which include (almost) all segments of business, using ordinary Internet browsers as thin clients.[citation needed]BeforePrior to the concept of ERP systems, it was not unusual for each department within an organization to have its own customized computer system. For example, the human resources (HR) department, the payroll department, and the financial department might all have their own computer systems.Typical difficulties involved integration of data from potentially different computer manufacturers and systems. For example, the HR computer system (often called HRMS or HRIS) would typically manage employee information while the payroll department would typically calculate and store paycheck information for each employee, and the financial department would typically store financial transactions for the organization. Each system would have to integrate using a predefined set of common data which would be transferred between each computer system. Any deviation from the data format or the integration schedule often resulted in problems.AfterERP software, among other things, combined the data of formerly separate applications. This simplified keeping data in synchronization across the enterprise, it simplified the computer infrastructure within a large organization, and it standardized and reduced the number of software specialties required within larger organizations.source : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_resource_planning

Perencanaan Sumber daya perusahaan PART 2

Perencanaan sumber daya perusahaan bagian II
Implementasi ERPBerikut ini adalah ringkasan poin-poin yg bisa digunakan sebagai pedoman pada saat implementasi ERP:ERP adalah bagian dari infrastruktur perusahaan, dan sangat penting untuk kelangsungan hidup perusahaan. Semua orang dan bagian yang akan terpengaruh oleh adanya ERP harus terlibat dan memberikan dukunganERP ada untuk mendukung fungsi bisnis dan meningkatkan produktivitas, bukan sebaliknya. Tujuan implementasi ERP adalah untuk meningkatkan daya saing perusahaanPelajari kesuksesan dan kegagalan implementasi ERP, jangan berusaha membuat sendiri praktek implementasi ERP. Ada metodologi tertentu untuk implementasi ERP yang lebih terjamin keberhasilannyaGagalnya ERPWaktu dan biaya implementasi yang melebihi anggaranPre-implementation tidak dilakukan dengan baikStrategi operasi tidak sejalan dengan business process design dan pengembangannyaOrang-orang tidak disiapkan untuk menerima dan beroperasi dengan sistem yang baruTanda-tanda kegagalan ERPKegagalan ERP biasanya ditandai oleh adanya hal-hal sebagai berikut:Kurangnya komitmen top managementKurangnya pendefinisian kebutuhan perusahaan (analisa strategi bisnis)Cacatnya proses seleksi software (tidak lengkap atau terburu-buru memutuskan)Kurangnya sumber daya (manusia, infrastruktur dan modal)Kurangnya ‘buy in’ sehingga muncul resistensi untuk berubah dari para karyawanKesalahan penghitungan waktu implementasiTidak cocoknya software dgn business processKurangnya training dan pembelajaranCacatnya project design & managementKurangnya komunikasiSaran penghematan yang menyesatkanSoftware ERPBeikut adalah software ERP yang saat ini beredar, baik yang berlisensi bayar maupun open sourceDynamics-AxaptaCompiereORACLEJDEBAANMFGProProteanMagicaLTiUsSAPOnesoftIFSELLIPSAGRESSOINTACS Ini bukan tulisan mengenai piranti lunak (software). Untuk menegaskan, ini bukanlah tulisan panduan untuk memilih software dan proses instalasi nya pada jaringan komputer anda. Ini adalah tulisan mengenai metode untuk menerapkan serangkaian proses bisnis yang superior di perusahaan anda - serangkaian proses bisnis yang akan memberi keunggulan daya saing (competitive advantage).Mungkin anda berpikir, "Lho? Judul tulisan ini kan ERP? Mana mungkin tulisan ini bukan mengenai software?"Lebih jauh, tidak semua konsep-konsep bisnis ERP tercakup dalam paket Enterprise Software (ES) standar. Demikian juga sebaliknya, dalam paket ES standar terdapat proses-proses bisnis yang bukan bagian dari ERP. Gambar 1-1 menunjukan perbedaan-perbedaan tersebut. Area sisi kanan dalam gambar adalah fungsi-fungsi ES yang bukan bagian dari ERP; area sisi kiri adalah fungsi-fungsi ERP yang tidak tercakup dalam paket ES standar; area tengah adalah irisan dari kedua kondisi sebelumnya yaitu fungsi-fungsi ERP yang memang tercakup dalam Enterprise Software.Lebih jauh, tidak semua konsep-konsep bisnis ERP tercakup dalam paket Enterprise Software (ES) standar. Demikian juga sebaliknya, dalam paket ES standar terdapat proses-proses bisnis yang bukan bagian dari ERP. Area sisi kanan dalam gambar adalah fungsi-fungsi ES yang bukan bagian dari ERP; area sisi kiri adalah fungsi-fungsi ERP yang tidak tercakup dalam paket ES standar; area tengah adalah irisan dari kedua kondisi sebelumnya yaitu fungsi-fungsi ERP yang memang tercakup dalam Enterprise Software.Apakah Enterprise Resource Planning dan Apa Kegunaannya?Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) dan pendahulunya, Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II), memungkinkan terjadinya kemajuan yang sangat besar dalam manajemen proses-proses manufakturing. ERP juga salah satu faktor penyumbang pada performa ekonomi Amerika yang luar biasa pada era 1990-an. Tidak diragukan bahwa ERP adalah tonggak sejarah dalam proses industri. Secara garis besar, ERP bisa digambarkan sebagai:Perkakas manajemen yang menyeimbangkan persediaan dan permintaan perusahaan secara menyeluruh, erkemampuan untuk menghubungkan pelanggan dan supplier dalam satu kesatuan rantai ketersediaan, engadopsi proses-proses bisnis yang telah terbukti dalam pengambilan keputusan, dan engintegrasikan seluruh bagian fungsional perusahaan; sales, marketing, manufacturing, operations, logistics, purchasing, finance, new product development, dan human resources; sehingga bisnis dapat berjalan dengan tingkat pelayanan pelanggan dan produktifitas yang tinggi, biaya dan inventory yang lebih rendah, dan menyediakan dasar untuk e-commerce yang efektif.Berikut beberapa contoh bagus mengenai penerapan ERP di berbagai perusahaan.Enterprise Resource Planning membantu sebuah perusahaan menaikan 20% tingkat penjualannya di tengah industri yang sedang menurun. Wakil presiden bidang penjualan menjelaskan, "Kita berhasil menangkap bisnis dari saingan-saingan kita. Berkat ERP, kini kita dapat mengirim lebih cepat dari mereka dan tepat waktu."Enterprise Resource Planning membantu sebuah perusahaan Fortune 50 dalam mencapai penghematan biaya yang sangat besar dan mendapatkan keunggulan daya saing yang signifikan. Wakil presiden bidang logistik menyatakan, "ERP menyediakan kunci untuk menjadi perusahaan global. Keputusan dapat diambil dengan data yang akurat dan dengan proses yang menghubungkan demand dan supply di berbagai belahan dunia. Perubahan ini bernilai miliaran bagi kami dalam penjualan di seluruh dunia." Sumber : http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perencanaan_sumber_daya_perusahaanhttp://www.erpweaver.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12&Itemid=2

Pengertian Sumber Daya Perusahaan

Perencanaan sumber daya perusahaan
Perencanaan sumber daya perusahaan, atau sering disingkat ERP dari istilah bahasa Inggrisnya, enterprise resource planning, adalah sistem informasi yang diperuntukkan bagi perusahan manufaktur maupun jasa yang berperan mengintegrasikan dan mengotomasikan proses bisnis yang berhubungan dengan aspek operasi, produksi maupun distribusi di perusahaan bersangkutan.Sejarah ERPERP berkembang dari Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) dimana MRP II sendiri adalah hasil evolusi dari Material Requirement Planning (MRP) yang berkembang sebelumnya. Sistem ERP secara modular biasanya menangani proses manufaktur, logistik, distribusi, persediaan (inventory), pengapalan, invoice dan akunting perusahaan. Ini berarti bahwa sistem ini nanti akan membantu mengontrol aktivitas bisnis seperti penjualan, pengiriman, produksi, manajemen persediaan, manajemen kualitas dan sumber daya manusia.Karakter Sistem ERPERP sering disebut sebagai Back Office System yang mengindikasikan bahwa pelanggan dan publik secara umum tidak dilibatkan dalam sistem ini. Berbeda dengan Front Office System yang langsung berurusan dengan pelanggan seperti sistem untuk e-Commerce, Customer Relationship Management (CRM), e-Government dan lain-lain.Modul ERPSecara modular, software ERP biasanya terbagi atas modul utama yakni Operasi serta modul pendukung yakni Finansial dan Akunting serta Sumber Daya Manusia-Modul OperasiGeneral Logistics, Sales and Distribution, Materials Management, Logistics Execution, Quality Management, Plant Maintenance, Customer Service, Production Planning and Control, Project System, Environment Management-Modul Finansial dan AkuntingGeneral Accounting, Financial Accounting, Controlling, Investment Management, Treasury, Enterprise Controlling,-Modul Sumber Daya ManusiaPersonnel Management, Personnel Time Management, Payroll, Training and Event Management, Organizational Management, Travel Management,Keuntungan penggunaan ERP-Integrasi data keuanganUntuk mengintegrasikan data keuangan sehingga top management bisa melihat dan mengontrol kinerja keuangan perusahaan dengan lebih baik-Standarisasi Proses OperasiMenstandarkan proses operasi melalui implementasi best practice sehingga terjadi peningkatan produktivitas, penurunan inefisiensi dan peningkatan kualitas produk-Standarisasi Data dan InformasiMenstandarkan data dan informasi melalui keseragaman pelaporan, terutama untuk perusahaan besar yang biasanya terdiri dari banyak business unit dengan jumlah dan jenis bisnis yg berbeda-beda-Keuntungan yg bisa diukurPenurunan inventoriPenurunan tenaga kerja secara totalPeningkatan service levelPeningkatan kontrol keuanganPenurunan waktu yang di butuhkan untuk mendapatkan informasiMemilih ERP-Latar BelakangInvestasi ERP sangat mahal dan pilihan ERP yang salah bisa menjadi mimpi burukERP yang berhasil digunakan oleh sebuah perusahaan tidak menjadi jaminan berhasil di perusahaan yang lain -Perencanaan harus dilakukan untuk menyeleksi ERP yg tepatBahkan dalam beberapa kasus yang ekstrim, evaluasi pilihan ERP menghasilkan rekomendasi untuk tidak membeli ERP, tetapi memperbaiki Business Process yang adaTidak ada ‘keajaiban’ dalam ERP software. Keuntungan yang didapat dari ERP adalah hasil dari persiapan dan implementasi yang efektifTidak ada software atau sistem informasi yang bisa menutupi business strategy yang cacat dan business process yang ‘parah’-Secara singkat, tidak semua ERP sama kemampuannya dan memilih ERP tidaklah mudah (paling tidak, tidaklah sederhana), dan memilih ERP yang salah akan menjadi bencana yang mahal3 syarat sukses ERP-Knowledge-Experience-Knowledge & ExperienceKnowledge adalah pengetahuan tentang bagaimana cara sebuah proses seharusnya dilakukan, jika segala sesuatunya berjalan lancarExperience adalah pemahaman terhadap kenyataan tentang bagaimana sebuah proses seharusnya dikerjakan dengan kemungkinan munculnya permasalahanKnowledge tanpa experience menyebabkan orang membuat perencanaan yang terlihat sempurna tetapi kemudian terbukti tidak bisa diimplementasikanExperience tanpa knowledge bisa menyebabkan terulangnya atau terakumulasinya kesalahan dan kekeliruan karena tidak dibekali dengan pemahaman yg cukupSelection MethodologyMetodologiAda struktur proses seleksi yang sebaiknya dilakukan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan perusahaan dalam memilih ERPProses seleksi tidak harus selalu rumit agar efektif. Yang penting organized, focused dan simpleProses seleksi ini biasanya berkisar antara 5-6 bulan sejak dimulai hingga penandatanganan order pembelian ERP(BK. Khaitan, weblink)Berikut ini adalah akivitas yg sebaiknya dilakukan sebagai bagian dari proses pemilihan software ERP: analisa strategi bisnis, analisa sumber daya manusia, analisa infrastruktur dan analisa softwareAnalisa Business StrategyBagaimana level kompetisi di pasar dan apa harapan dari customers?Adakah keuntungan kompetitif yang ingin dicapai?Apa strategi bisnis perusahaan dan objectives yang ingin dicapai?Bagaimana proses bisnis yang sekarang berjalan vs proses bisnis yang diinginkan?Adakah proses bisnis yang harus diperbaiki?Apa dan bagaimana prioritas bisnis yang ada dan adakah rencana kerja yang disusun untuk mencapai objektif dan prioritas tersebut?Target bisnis seperti apa yang harus dicapai dan kapan?Analisa PeopleBagaimana komitment top management thd usaha untuk implementasi ERP?Siapa yg akan mengimplementasikan ERP dan siapa yg akan menggunakannya?Bagaimana komitmen dari tim implementasi?Apa yg diharapkan para calon user thd ERP?Adakah ERP champion yg menghubungkan top management dgn tim?Adakah konsultan dari luar yg disiapkan untuk membantu proses persiapan?Analisa InfrastrukturBagaimanakah kelengkapan infrastruktur yang sudah ada (overall networks, permanent office systems, communication system dan auxiliary system)Seberapa besar budget untuk infrastruktur?Apa infrastruktur yang harus disiapkan?Analisa SoftwareApakah software tsb cukup fleksibel dan mudah disesuaikan dengan kondisi perusahaan?Apakah ada dukungan service dari supplier, tidak hanya secara teknis tapi juga untuk kebutuhan pengembangan sistem di kemudian hariSeberapa banyak waktu untuk implementasi yg tersediaApakah software memiliki fungsi yang bisa meningkatkan proses bisnis perusahaan Sumber : http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perencanaan_sumber_daya_perusahaan

Pengertian Artificial Intelligence

Pengertian Artificial Intelligence
Kecerdasan buatan. Suatu cabang dalam bidang sains komputer Sains yang mengkaji tentang bagaimana untuk melengkapi sebuah komputer dengan kemampuan atau kepintaran seperti manusia. Sebagai contoh, bagaimana komputer bisa belajar sendiri dari pengalaman dan data-data yang telah dikumpulkannya, bagaimana komputer mampu berkomunikasi dan mengucapkan kata demi kata. Dengan kemampuan ini, diharapkan komputer mampu mengambil keputusan sendiri untuk berbagai kasus yang ditemuinya. Industri AI ini berkembang semenjak tahun 1980an, meskipun sudah dimulai dari tahun 1970anEvolusi AI berjalan dalam dua jalur yang berbeda. Pertama, untuk menciptakan sistem komputer yang meniru proses berpikir manusia untuk menyelesaikan permasalahan umum. Misalnya program permainan catur. Kedua, mengkombinasikan pemikiran terbaik para ahli pada sepotong software yang dirancang untuk memecahkan persoalan yang spesifik. Biasanya disebut juga dengan expert system, atau sistem pakar. Misalnya bagaimana seorang dokter menentukan penyakit seseorang, mulai dari tanya jawab, pemeriksaan kondisi tubuh seperti mata, tekanan darah, suhu tubuh dan sebagainya. Langkah-langkah ini pula yang berusaha diterapkan ke komputer yang mampu berpikir seperti pakar tersebut.Program AI adalah program komputer yang berupaya untuk memenuhi tujuan di atas. Pemrograman AI umumnya menggunakan bahasa pemrograman khusus seperti : Prolog, Lisp dan sebagainya. Alasan digunakannya bahasa pemrograman yang khusus adalah karena memang ada perbedaaan mendasar antara pemrograman AI dan pemrograman konvensional. Apa bedanya…Bedanya begini… Pemrograman AI (khususnya Prolog) memiliki sifat deklaratif, sedangkan pemrograman konvensional bersifat prosedural. Pada bahasa pemrograman prosedural, programmer (pemrogram) memberikan program pada komputer secara How to do, yaitu bagaimana melakukan sesuatu. Artinya komputer harus diberitahu tentang langkah-langkah (algoritma) memecahkan suatu permasalahan. Sedangkan pada bahasa pemrograman deklaratif pemrogram memberikan program pada komputer secara What to do, yakni apa yang harus dilakukan.Jadi pada pemrograman deklaratif komputer hanya diberitahu tentang data/fakta dan aturan yang berlaku berdasarkan permasalahan tanpa memberitahu bagaimana semestinya masalah tersebut dipecahkan. Tugas menemukan cara pemecahan masalah tersebut dilakukan oleh komputer (Nah atas prinsip inilah maka komputer baru boleh disebut ‘cerdas’, ini ‘kunci’ jawaban untuk mahasiswa yang sedang ngambil kuliah AI dengan saya, makanya ikuti blog ini terus, he he sambilan promosi).Umumnya kebanyakan pemrogram lebih mengetahui bahasa prosedural seperti C/C++ dari pada bahasa pemrograman AI seperti tersebut di atas. Di sisi lain paradigma dari pemrograman AI tampaknya cukup menjanjikan untuk menjadi bahasa pemrograman masa depan. Dapatkah sebagian dari paradigma pemrograman AI tersebut diimplementasikan menggunakan bahasa pemrograman prosedural ?Baik…, ada dua fakta urgen sehingga pertanyaan di atas mesti terjawab.Pertama kebanyakan pemrogram memiliki latar belakang yang minim di bidang AI. Dan kedua, kebanyakan peminat/pakar AI menggunakan bahasa pemrograman khusus untuk AI dalam mengimplementasikan teknik-teknik AI. Sementara program-program masa kini yang umumnya dibuat oleh pemrogram yang menggunakan bahasa prosedural juga membutuhkan teknik-teknik AI demi meningkatkan unjuk kerjanya.Kedua fakta di atas dapatkah ditemukan jalan tengahnya (Ibarat menyatukan dua dunia kan ) ?Cara Pertama. Sebenarnya modul program yang ditulis dengan Turbo Prolog dapat diperantarai (istilahnya interfacing) dengan modul yang ditulis dengan C/C++ misalnya, tetapi ini bukan pemecahan yang paling tepat.Dengan menggunakan dua bahasa pemrograman yang terpisah berarti membutuhkan manajemen dan koordinasi yang lebih, karena bagaimanapun menghubungkan dua sistem yang berbeda akan memerlukan pengetahuan yang rinci tentang kedua sistem tersebut. Juga dengan menggunakan bahasa pemrograman terpisah berarti para pemrogram umum harus menguasai bahasa pemrograman AI tersebut secara matang.Cara Kedua. Penulis memiliki ‘gagasan’ (alternatif) pemecahan yang lebih baik (menurut dia aja kali), yaitu dengan mengkaji peng-implementasi-an teknik-teknik pemrograman AI menggunakan bahasa pemrograman umum/prosedural seperti C, C++ atau JAVA. Apa bisa ya ?Untuk itu ada beberapa hal yang harus terjawab. Pertama, sejauhmana paradigma pemrograman AI (khususnya sifat deklaratifnya) dapat diimplementasikan menggunakan bahasa pemrograman non-deklaratif seperti C++atau JAVA.Kedua, dapatkah implementasi tersebut dibuat dalam bentuk library khusus yang selanjutnya akan dijadikan sebagai perangkat bantu untuk pengembangan program-program AI di kemudian hari . Ketiga, harus diuji bagaimana efektivitas library (perangkat bantu) tersebut dalam memberikan kemudahan perancangan program-program AI dan bagaimana unjuk kerja (performance) dari program yang dihasilkannya.Penulis juga sedang mengkaji kemungkinan penerapan ‘AI library’ (Intelligent Package) untuk JAVA, sementara yang terakhir ini masih dalam taraf kajian fasilitas-fasilitas yang dibutuhkan. Kita layak aja berbagi…Sumber : http://www.total.or.id/info.php?kk=artificial%20Intelligencehttp://herianto.unsada.ac.id/?p=39

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is both the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which aims to create it.Major AI textbooks define artificial intelligence as "the study and design of intelligent agents, "where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success.AI can be seen as a realization of an abstract intelligent agent (AIA) which exhibits the functional essence of intelligence. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines."Among the traits that researchers hope machines will exhibit are reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.[6] General intelligence (or "strong AI") has not yet been achieved and is a long-term goal of AI research.AI research uses tools and insights from many fields, including computer science, psychology, philosophy, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, ontology, operations research, economics, control theory, probability, optimization and logic.AI research also overlaps with tasks such as robotics, control systems, scheduling, data mining, logistics, speech recognition, facial recognition and many others. Other names for the field have been proposed, such as computational intelligence, synthetic intelligence, intelligent systems, or computational rationality.Perspectives on AIHumanity has imagined in great detail the implications of thinking machines or artificial beings. They appear in Greek myths, such as Talos of Crete, the golden robots of Hephaestus and Pygmalion's Galatea. The earliest known humanoid robots (or automatons) were sacred statues worshipped in Egypt and Greece, believed to have been endowed with genuine consciousness by craftsman. In medieval times, alchemists such as Paracelsus claimed to have created artificial beings. Realistic clockwork imitations of human beings have been built by people such as Yan Shi, Hero of Alexandria, Al-Jazari and Wolfgang von Kempelen. Pamela McCorduck observes that "artificial intelligence in one form or another is an idea that has pervaded Western intellectual history, a dream in urgent need of being realized."In modern fiction, beginning with Mary Shelley's classic Frankenstein, writers have explored the ethical issues presented by thinking machines.If a machine can be created that has intelligence, can it also feel? If it can feel, does it have the same rights as a human being? This is a key issue in Frankenstein as well as in modern science fiction: for example, the film Artificial Intelligence: A.I. considers a machine in the form of a small boy which has been given the ability to feel human emotions, including, tragically, the capacity to suffer. This issue is also being considered by futurists, such as California's Institute for the Future under the name "robot rights", although many critics believe that the discussion is premature.Science fiction writers and futurists have also speculated on the technology's potential impact on humanity. In fiction, AI has appeared as a servant (R2D2), a comrade (Lt. Commander Data), an extension to human abilities (Ghost in the Shell), a conqueror (The Matrix), a dictator (With Folded Hands) and an exterminator (Terminator, Battlestar Galactica). Some realistic potential consequences of AI are decreased human labor demand, the enhancement of human ability or experience, and a need for redefinition of human identity and basic values.Futurists estimate the capabilities of machines using Moore's Law, which measures the relentless exponential improvement in digital technology with uncanny accuracy. Ray Kurzweil has calculated that desktop computers will have the same processing power as human brains by the year 2029, and that by 2045 artificial intelligence will reach a point where it is able to improve itself at a rate that far exceeds anything conceivable in the past, a scenario that science fiction writer Vernor Vinge named the "technological singularity"."Artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution," Edward Fredkin said in the 1980s, expressing an idea first proposed by Samuel Butler's Darwin Among the Machines (1863), and expanded upon by George Dyson in his book of the same name (1998). Several futurists and science fiction writers have predicted that human beings and machines will merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful than either. This idea, called transhumanism, has roots in Aldous Huxley and Robert Ettinger, is now associated with robot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick and Ray Kurzweil.Transhumanism has been illustrated in fiction as well, for example on the manga Ghost in the ShellHistory of AI researchMain articles: history of artificial intelligence and timeline of artificial intelligenceIn the middle of the 20th century, a handful of scientists began a new approach to building intelligent machines, based on recent discoveries in neurology, a new mathematical theory of information, an understanding of control and stability called cybernetics, and above all, by the invention of the digital computer, a machine based on the abstract essence of mathematical reasoning.The field of modern AI research was founded at conference on the campus of Dartmouth College in the summer of 1956.Those who attended would become the leaders of AI research for many decades, especially John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, who founded AI laboratories at MIT, CMU and Stanford. They and their students wrote programs that were, to most people, simply astonishing:computers were solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English.By the middle 60s their research was heavily funded by the U.S. Department of Defense[34] and they were optimistic about the future of the new field:1965, H. A. Simon: "[M]achines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do"1967, Marvin Minsky: "Within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved."These predictions, and many like them, would not come true. They had failed to recognize the difficulty of some of the problems they faced.In 1974, in response to the criticism of England's Sir James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from Congress to fund more productive projects, the U.S. and British governments cut off all undirected, exploratory research in AI. This was the first AI Winter.In the early 80s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems (a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human experts) and by 1985 the market for AI had reached more than a billion dollars.Minsky and others warned the community that enthusiasm for AI had spiraled out of control and that disappointment was sure to follow.Beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, more lasting AI Winter began.In the 90s and early 21st century AI achieved its greatest successes, albeit somewhat behind the scenes. Artificial intelligence was adopted throughout the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for logistics, data mining, medical diagnosis and many other areas.The success was due to several factors: the incredible power of computers today (see Moore's law), a greater emphasis on solving specific subproblems, the creation of new ties between AI and other fields working on similar problems, and above all a new commitment by researchers to solid mathematical methods and rigorous scientific standardsPhilosophy of AICan the brain be simulated by a digital computer? If it can, then would the simulation have a mind in the same sense that people do?In a classic 1950 paper, Alan Turing posed the question "Can Machines Think?" In the years since, the philosophy of artificial intelligence has attempted to answer it.Turing's "polite convention": If a machine acts as intelligently as a human being, then it is as intelligent as a human being. Alan Turing realized that, ultimately, we can only judge the intelligence of machine based on its behavior. This insight forms the basis of the Turing test.The Dartmouth proposal: Every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. This assertion was printed in the proposal for the Dartmouth Conference of 1956, and represents the position of most working AI researchers.Newell and Simon's physical symbol system hypothesis: A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action. This statement claims that the essence of intelligence is symbol manipulation.Hubert Dreyfus argued that, on the contrary, human expertise depends on unconscious instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation and on having a "feel" for the situation rather than explicit symbolic knowledge.Gödel's incompleteness theorem: A physical symbol system can not prove all true statements. Roger Penrose is among those who claim that Gödel's theorem limits what machines can do.Searle's "strong AI position": A physical symbol system can have a mind and mental states. Searle counters this assertion with his Chinese room argument, which asks us to look inside the computer and try to find where the "mind" might be.The artificial brain argument: The brain can be simulated. Hans Moravec, Ray Kurzweil and others have argued that it is technologically feasible to copy the brain directly into hardware and software, and that such a simulation will be essentially identical to the original. This argument combines the idea that a suitably powerful machine can simulate any process, with the materialist idea that the mind is the result of a physical process in the brain.Source : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence

Sistem Pendukung Keputusan

Sistem Pendukung Keputusan
Sistem Pendukung Keputusan (SPK) atau decision support system merupakan salah satu jenis sistem informasi yang bertujuan untuk menyediakan informasi, membimbing, memberikan prediksi serta mengarahkan kepada pengguna informasi agar dapat melakukan pengambilan keputusan dengan lebih baik dan berbasis evidence. Secara hirarkis, SPK biasanya dikembangkan untuk pengguna pada tingkatan manajemen menengah dan tertinggi. Dalam pengembangan sistem informasi, SPK baru dapat dikembangkan jika sistem pengolahan transaksi (level pertama) dan sistem informasi manajemen (level kedua) sudah berjalan dengan baik. SPK yang baik harus mampu menggali informasi dari database, melakukan analisis serta memberikan interpretasi dalam bentuk yang mudah dipahami dengan format yang mudah untuk digunakan (user friendly).Dari sisi konteks, pada dasarnya sebuah Sistem Pendukung Keputusan Klinik (SPKK) adalah SPK yang diterapkan untuk manajemen klinis. Secara definitif SPKK adalah aplikasi perangkat lunak yang mengintegrasikan informasi yang berasal dari pasien (karakteristik demografis, klinis, sosial psikologis) dengan basis pengetahuan (knowledge base) untuk membantu klinisi dan atau pasien dalam membuat keputusan klinis. Pengguna SPKK adalah tenaga kesehatan yang terlibat dalam tata laksana klinis pasien di rumah sakit mulai dari dokter, perawat, bidan, fisioterapis dan lain-lain.SPKK tidak harus bersifat elektronis. Kartu Menuju Sehat (KMS) pada dasarnya adalah suatu SPKK sederhana yang menyediakan fasilitas untuk memasukkan data balita secara lengkap mulai dari riwayat persalinan, imunisasi, riwayat minum ASI, berat badan serta grafik yang dilengkapi dengan kriteria status gizi serta panduan tentang bagaimana menginterpretasikan naik turunnya berat badan balita dan dapat digunakan baik oleh tenaga kesehatan maupun orang tua balita. Model SPKK manual lainnya adalah penerapan berbagai algoritma klinis untuk penanganan penyakit tertentu. Namun, dalam tulisan ini kita akan lebih banyak mengulas tentang SPKK yang berbasis komputer.SPKK tersusun atas komponen sebagai berikut:Database yaitu kumpulan data yang tersusun secara terstruktur dan dalam format elektronik yang mudah diolah oleh program komputer. Database ini menghimpun berbagai jenis data baik yang berasal dari pasien, obat (jenis, dosis, indikasi, kontraindikasi dll), dokter/perawat dll.Knowledge base: merupakan kumpulan pengetahuan kedokteran yang merupakan sintesis dari berbagai literatur, protokol klinik (clinical guidelines), pendapat pakar maupun hasil penelitian lainnya yang sudah diterjemahkan dalam bahasa yang dapat dipahami oleh komputer.Instrumen : adalah alat yang dapat mengumpulkan data klinis seperti: alat pemeriksaan laboratorium, EKG, radiologis dan lain-lain. Keberadaan instrumen dalam suatu SPKK tidak mutlak.Mesin inferensial (inference engine) : merupakan program utama dalam suatu SPKK yang mengendalikan keseluruhan sistem, mulai dari menangkap informasi yang berasal dari pasien, mengkonsultasikannya dengan knowledge base dan memberikan hasil interpretasinya kepada pengguna.Antar muka (user interface) : adalah tampilan program komputer yang memungkinkan pengguna berkonsultasi untuk memasukkan data, memilih menu hingga mendapatkan hasil baik berupa teks, grafis, sinyal, simbol dan bentuk interaktivitas lainnya. Interaktivitas dapat bersifat aktif-otomatis maupun pasif.Jika mesin inferensial adalah program utama yang mengendalikan SPKK maka knowledge base adalah otaknya. Knowledge base dapat diibaratkan sebagai tiruan manusia (dokter) yang ditanamkan ke dalam komputer agar komputer dapat berpikir dan mengambil keputusan sebagaimana manusia(dokter) aslinya. Knowledge base biasanya dikembangkan menggunakan berbagai metode matematis (statistik) seperti Bayesian, neural network maupun aturan simbolis sederhana (IF-THEN). MYCIN, salah satu program SPKK yang JIKA :jenis infeksinya adalah meningitistipe infeksinya adalah bakterialpasien sedang mendapatkan terapi kortikosteroidMAKAOrganisme yang mungkin menyebabkan infeksi adalah e.coli (0.4), klebsiella-pneumoniae(0.2), atau pseudomonas aeruginosa(0.1)Dalam program tersebut, angka 1 menunjukkan derajat kepastian adalah 100% sebaliknya angka -1 menunjukkan derajat ketidakpastian sebesar 100 %. Angka tersebut merupakan hasil sintesis dari berbagai studi dan pendapat pakar. Terdapat juga SPKK yang knowledge basednya menggunakan metode Bayesian untuk manajemen klinis pneumonia seperti pada gambar 3.Gambar 3. Contoh penghitungan risiko mortalitas pada penderita pneumonia yang menggunakan pendekatan statistik Bayesian.Fungsi SPKKAlasan mengapa SPKK disebut-sebut sebagai salah satu alternatif untuk mencegah medical error dan mendorong patient safety terletak pada potensi dan fungsinya. SPKK secara umum akan bermanfaat bagi dokter dalam pengambilan keputusan karena memiliki fungsi mulai dari alerting, assisting, critiquing, diagnosis hingga ke manajemen.AlertingAlert otomatis akan muncul dan memberikan data serta informasi kepada dokter secara cepat pada situasi kritis yang kadang membahayakan. Pada kondisi tersebut, informasi yang lengkap sangat penting dalam pengambilan keputusan, misalnya: nilai laboratorium abnormal, kecenderungan vital sign, kontraindikasi pengobatan maupun kegagalan prosedur tertentu. Sistem alert telah digunakan secara rutin dalam program HELP (Health Evaluation through Logical Processing) mampu menurunkan laju infeksi pasca operatif dari 13% ke 5.5% per hari dan menurunkan prosentase pemberian antibiotik berlebihan dari 35% ke 18%.InterpretasiInterpretasi merupakan asimilasi dari data klinis untuk memahami data pasien. Contoh sederhana adalah mesin penginterpretasi EKG, analisis gas datah maupun pemeriksaan radiologis.Assisting (memberikan bantuan)Adalah contoh SPKK yang bertujuan untuk mempermudah atau mempercepat aktivitas klinis. SPKK yang bersifat hibrid (campuran manual dan elektronik) akan memberikan hasil print out sintesis data pasien yang mengarahkan kepada tindakan manajemen selanjutnya. Pada sistem yang online,Critiquing (memberikan kritik)Jenis aplikasi ini akan memberikan kritik kepada pengguna untuk memverifikasi keputusan klinis yang telah dipilih. Berbagai contoh aplikasi SPKK jenis ini dapat bermanfaat untuk mencegah permintaan pemeriksaan klinis yang tidak tepat (seperti pada gambar 6), pemberian obat yang tidak sesuai dengan indikasi maupun penerapan protokol klinik.DiagnosisMerupakan contoh aplikasi SPKK yang paling populer dan banyak dipublikasikan sejak tahun 1970-an. Tujuan aplikasi ini adalah memberikan daftar probabilitas berbagai differential diagnosis berdasarkan data pasien yang diinputkan ke dalam komputer.ManajemenPada dasarnya, aplikasi jenis ini bertujuan untuk meningkatkan/memperbaiki sistem manajemen klinis yang ada, mulai dari operasional rumah sakit, alokasi sumber daya (termasuk SDM) hingga ke assessment terhadap perubahan pola penyakit yang dirawat.Perkembangan SPKKHingga saat ini, banyak sekali publikasi mengenai SPKK yang dapat ditemukan di jurnal internasional dengan berbagai kategori. Tabel 1 menyajikan tiga kategori utama SPKK, yaitu SPKK berspektrum luas, mengenah dan kecil dengan contoh aplikasinya masing-masing. Namun, pengalaman di lapangan menunjukkan bahwa tidak semua aplikasi SPKK diterapkan dalam praktek sehari-hari. Pada waktu awal, gairah riset untuk pengembangan SPKK terpesona dengan kemampuan komputer untuk melakukan analisis secara cepat dan mengumpulkan data yang cukup besar. Sehingga tujuan pengembangan SPKK seakan-akan bertujuan untuk mengganti peran dokter (ingat pertarungan catur Gary Kasparov melawan Deep Blue).Model konsultasi diagnosisk pada program INTERNIST-I pada tahun 1974 menempatkan dokter sebagai pihak yang tidak mampu melakukan diagnosis. Sehingga, dokter diminta untuk memasukkan semua informasi pasien, mulai dari riwayat penyakit, data laboratorium hingga temuan pemeriksaan fisik ke dalam program tersebut untuk mendapatkan hasilnya. Dokter hanya berperan sebagai observer yang pasif dan menjawab YES atau NO terhadap pertanyaan dari INTERNIST-I.Meskipun dari sisi teknis, program INTERNIST-I memiliki kemampuan tinggi untuk mendiagonosis penyakit, tetapi di lapangan tidak ada dokter yang mau memfeed komputer dengan hasil temuannya. Di sisi lain, sangatlah wajar apabila banyak dokter yang menolak SPKK karena aplikasi ini cenderung membatasi otoritas seorang dokter. Namun di sisi lain, perkembangan teknologi informasi menunjukkan hasil yang cukup menggembirakan yang memungkinkan rumahsakit mengintegrasikan berbagai sumber data menggunakan perangkat keras yang semakin mini (komputer yang dikembangkan untuk SPKK pada tahun 1970-an ukurannya sebesar lemari) dan terintegrasi dengan jaringan (termasuk jalur nir kabel). Di Kanada, 50 persen dokter di bawah usia 35 tahun saat ini sudah menggunakan PDA dan aktif mendownload berbagai e-book tentang clinical guidelines yang terdapat di Internet.Dalam analisisnya tentang perkembangan SPKK, Bates et al menyarankan 10 syarat agar SPKK diterapkan di lapangan, sebagai berikut:Speed is everythingAnticipate needs and deliver in a real timeFit into the user’s workflowLittle things can make a big differenceRecognize that physician will strongly resist stoppingChanging direction is easier than stoppingSimple interventions work bestAsk for additional information only when you really need itMonitor impact, get feedback and respondManage and maintain your knowledge based systemsSistem pendukung keputusan klinik yang spesifik akan terus berkembang dan meluas penggunaannya. Analisis EKG, interpretasi analisis gas darah, elektroforesis protein serta hitung jenis sel darah berkomputer merupakan beberapa contoh kecil keberhasilan SPK di bidang klinik.Namun demikian, SPKK generik yang berskala besar masih dipertanyakan. Hal ini sangat tergantung kepada konstruksi dan pemeliharaan basis pengetahuan medis (medical knowledge base). Seperti kita, ketahui, sampai sekarang, sebagian besar rumah sakit di Indonesia masih berkutat dengan subsistem informasi keuangan (khususnya billing). Meskipun, beberapa rumah sakit sudah mengembangkan database rekam medis, tetapi masih terbatas pada pengumpulan data demografis dan diagnosis. Medical knowledge base memerlukan effort yang besar karena harus mengembangkan database klinis pasien (dengan mengumpulkan data diagnosis, simtom, faktor risiko, multimedia, laboratorium hingga ke genetis) serta sumber daya manusia yang konsisten dan terus menerus memelihara dan mengkaji perkembangan mutakhir yang terdapat dalam database pasien serta sumber-sumber literatur kedokteran mutakhir, seperti MEDLINE. Perkembangan pengetahuan terbaru selanjutnya diadaptasi menjadi basis literatur dan dikombinasikan dengan protokol klinik dan outcome terbaik dalam pelayanan klinik sebagai bahan makanan bagi SPKK agar tetap terjaga kekiniannya (gambar 7). Oleh karena itu, pengembangan SPKK jenis ini biasanya sesuai untuk rumah sakit tipe B pendidikan yang memiliki komitmen lebih jelas dalam aspek riset. Sebagian besar literatur yang menjelaskan keberhasilan SPKKpun juga berasal dari institusi besar, dengan jenis layanan tersier dan mayoritas penggunanya adalah residen.Di sisi yang lain, mengembangkan SPKK generik untuk taraf menengah dan kecil, agar dapat digunakan oleh dokter praktek umum juga sangat dilematis. Kecuali, jika SPKK tersebut didesain dalam bentuk tertentu yang justru akan meningkatkan image dokter di mata pasien. Oleh karena itu, salah satu harapan agar semakin banyak dokter menggunakan SPKK adalah integrasi modul SPKK dengan perangkat yang handy yaitu personal digital assistant (PDA). Namun, hingga saat ini SPKK yang terdapat dalam bentuk PDA lebih banyak bertujuan membantu dokter dalam memilih jenis terapi. Akan tetapi, kemampuan PDA untuk menyimpan database dalam skala besar masih dalam perkembangan. Di rumah sakit besar, pemanfaatan PDA dapat difasilitasi dengan jaringan nir kabel yangmemungkinkan koneksi ke database pasien di rumah sakit.SPKK memiliki prospek yang sangat baik di masa depan. Para peneliti serta publikasi mengenai SPKK menunjukkan pertumbuhan yang meyakinkan dengan jenis aplikasi SPKK yang semakin beragam. Di sisi lain perusahan komersial yang tertarik dengan SPKK juga semakin banyak. Namun, di sisi lain perlu diimbangi dengan assessment tentang cost effectiveness serta prosedur pengujian dan standar mutunya. Semua hal tersebut nantinya akan mendorong perkembangan SPKK baru yang produktif, teruji dan (yang penting lagi) digunakan dalam praktek klinis. Sumber : http://www.combiphar.com/article.php?id_news=2625